Mongolia is a vast, landlocked country in the heart of Central and East Asia, covering 1,564,116 km² yet home to only about 3.4 million people — making it the most sparsely populated sovereign nation on Earth. Its geography is defined by a high plateau averaging 1,580 m in elevation, the Altai Mountains in the west, sweeping grassland steppes across the center and east, the Gobi Desert in the south, and freshwater lakes and rivers in the north near the Russian border.
Where Is Mongolia Located?
Mongolia sits between two giants: Russia to the north and China to the south, east, and west. These are its only two neighbours, and Mongolia shares no border with any other country, leaving it doubly landlocked — separated from the nearest ocean by hundreds of kilometres of foreign territory. This deep continental position is the single most important fact in Mongolian geography. Cut off from the moderating influence of any sea, the country experiences ferocious temperature extremes, scant rainfall, and a sky so consistently clear that Mongolians proudly call their homeland the "Land of the Blue Sky." The capital, Ulaanbaatar, lies in the north-central part of the country and is home to roughly half the national population.
Physical Geography and Terrain
Mongolia is essentially a high, cold plateau tilted toward the steppe, and its terrain falls into several broad zones running roughly from northwest to southeast. The mountainous west and north give way to rolling grasslands in the center and east, and finally to arid desert in the south. The country's principal mountain systems are:
- Altai Mountains — a glaciated chain along the western border containing Khüiten Peak (4,374 m), Mongolia's highest point, located at the junction with China and Russia.
- Khangai Mountains — a rounded volcanic range in central Mongolia rising to about 3,905 m and feeding many of the country's major rivers.
- Khentii Mountains — forested highlands in the northeast (around 2,800 m) traditionally tied to Chinggis Khaan's homeland.
- Sayan Mountains — the northern frontier ranges shared with Russia, marking the edge of the Siberian taiga.
Between these ranges, the central and eastern steppe stretches for hundreds of kilometres as one of the largest intact temperate grasslands left on the planet. To the south lies the Gobi, a cold desert of gravel plains, rocky outcrops, and only patchy sand dunes.
Rivers, Lakes, and Drainage
Despite its dryness, Mongolia holds significant freshwater, most of it concentrated in the wetter north. The country's drainage is unusual because its waters flow into three entirely separate basins: the Arctic Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, and a vast Central Asian internal basin with no outlet to any sea. Major rivers include:
- Kherlen (1,264 km) — the longest river within Mongolia, flowing east toward the internal drainage of the Hulun lake system.
- Selenge (1,024 km) — the largest by volume, feeding northward into Russia's Lake Baikal and ultimately the Arctic.
- Orkhon (1,124 km) — flowing through the historically rich Orkhon Valley, a UNESCO World Heritage cultural landscape.
- Onon (808 km) — a headwater of the mighty Amur, draining toward the Pacific.
- Tuul (704 km) — the river that passes through Ulaanbaatar.
Mongolia's crown jewel of water is Lake Khövsgöl in the far north. Sitting at 1,645 m elevation, this deep, ancient lake holds about 70% of Mongolia's fresh surface water and roughly 0.4% of the world's, earning it the nickname "Mongolia's Blue Pearl."
Climate and Weather
Mongolia has one of the most extreme continental climates on Earth. Winters are long and brutally cold, with temperatures of -30°C to -40°C common across much of the country, while short summers can push past 35°C in the Gobi. Daily temperature swings frequently exceed 30°C. Rainfall is sparse — typically 200–350 mm a year on the steppe and under 100 mm in the desert — yet the skies are remarkably clear, with more than 250 sunny days annually. A defining hazard is the "dzud," a severe winter disaster in which deep snow and extreme cold prevent livestock from reaching forage, killing millions of animals and devastating herder families in a single season.
Natural Resources and Environment
Beneath Mongolia's grasslands and deserts lie some of the richest mineral deposits in Asia. The country has vast coal reserves, world-class copper and gold at the Oyu Tolgoi deposit in the south Gobi, plus iron ore, uranium, fluorspar, rare earth elements, and petroleum. Above ground, the windswept steppe holds significant wind-energy potential, and Mongolia is the world's second-largest producer of cashmere. Its ecosystems range from taiga forest and alpine meadow in the north and west, to the immense eastern steppe — still roamed by millions of Mongolian gazelles — to the semi-desert and desert of the Gobi, famous for the dinosaur fossils first unearthed at the Flaming Cliffs in 1923. Balancing this mineral wealth against the fragility of these grassland and desert ecosystems remains Mongolia's central environmental challenge.
Human Geography
Mongolia's roughly 3.4 million people translate to a density of just 2.2 per km², the lowest of any sovereign state. Settlement is heavily concentrated in the north-central corridor where water and milder conditions allow it. Ulaanbaatar dominates with about 1.6 million residents, followed by far smaller centers such as Erdenet (about 100,000), Darkhan (85,000), Choibalsan (44,000), and Mörön (40,000). Beyond the cities, a large share of Mongolians still live a semi-nomadic herding life, moving with the seasons across the steppe — a way of life shaped directly by the land, the climate, and the search for pasture and water.
Key Facts
- Area: 1,564,116 km² (18th largest country in the world)
- Population: ~3.4 million (population density 2.2 per km², the world's lowest)
- Capital: Ulaanbaatar (~1.6 million people; coldest national capital on Earth)
- Highest point: Khüiten Peak, 4,374 m, in the Altai Mountains
- Average elevation: 1,580 m above sea level
- Neighbours: Russia and China only (doubly landlocked)
- Largest desert: The Gobi, covering roughly 500,000 km² of southern Mongolia
Frequently Asked Questions
What type of landscape does Mongolia have?
Mongolia is dominated by a high plateau averaging 1,580 m elevation. Its landscape grades from the glaciated Altai Mountains in the west and forested ranges in the north, through vast central and eastern grassland steppes, to the cold, gravelly Gobi Desert in the south.
Is Mongolia landlocked?
Yes. Mongolia is one of the largest landlocked countries in the world and is in fact "doubly landlocked," bordered only by Russia and China and separated from the nearest coastline by hundreds of kilometres of foreign land.
Why is Mongolia so cold?
Mongolia's deep interior position, far from any ocean, gives it an extreme continental climate. Without the sea to moderate temperatures, winters routinely fall to -30°C or -40°C, and Ulaanbaatar is the coldest capital city on Earth, with an average annual temperature around -1.3°C.
What is the Gobi Desert?
The Gobi is a cold desert covering about 500,000 km² of southern Mongolia (extending into China). Rather than endless sand, it is mostly bare rock and gravel plains. It is the world's fifth-largest desert and a globally important site for dinosaur fossils.